CHOSON DYNASTY

Early Period

At 518 years (1392-1910), the Choson Dynasty is the nation's longest-lived. Its founder, Yi SOng­gye, took the dynastic name Taejo ("Great Prog­enitor"), moved the capital to Hanyang (Seoul), and named the dynasty after the ancient ChosOn Kingdom. This ended the Koryo Dynasty Wang family's rule and supplanted it with the Chonju branch of the Yi family. Referring to this family name, the Choson Dynasty is often mistakenly called the Yi Dynasty.

Diplomatic relations were renewed with the Ming Chinese, and conflicts with northern no­madic tribes were resolved. During the reign of King Sejong (1418-50), the territory was ex­tended to the Amnok and Tuman rivers, the present northern border of North Korea. At that time, the country was split into eight provinces, which have come down to this century basical­ly unchanged. Regional capitals were set up in each province, and provincial armies and navies established. A system of beacon-fire commu­nication sites and a series of postal relay stations were set up to transfer messages throughout the kingdom.

As Buddhism fell from favor, Confucianism arose as the dominant political and social force. The strict social hierarchy of Confucianism placed the king at the pinnacle with royalty di­rectly below; under that was the aristocratic yangban class, which had expanded since the Koryo Dynasty. Below that fell the commoners -tenant farmers and fishermen, many of whom had lost their rights and free status over the centuries as taxes and rents grew unbearable. At the bottom of the pile were outcasts, com­moners who were employed in undesirable oc­cupations, and slaves. Social classes became hereditary because intermingling was nearly impossible. This rigid system relaxed somewhat in the dynasty's latter years, when a merchant class arose (and some families were able to buy into or were granted the rank of yangban) and many traditional yangban families lost sta­tus and economic stability.

The system of government set up by King T'aejo, and carried on by his successors, was one of counselors and department ministers. Final authority rested in the king, but suggestions were entertained at all levels. Govemment offi­cials received land in relation to their rank. When

land became scarce, salaries were paid. Al­though all land was officially owned by the king, yangban were allowed to collect rent on their allotted parcels and maintain slaves. Over the centuries, private holdings grew large, increas­ing the power and prestige of select yangban and reducing the leverage of the king.

To insure a sizable pool of educated young men for government service, additional public

and private schools were established, and civil ti service, military, and other exams were insti- ~ tuted. In the Confucian tradition, great importance was placed upon education, for through it one could achieve position and rank, and ulti­mately influence, power, and property. The strict Confucianist system seemed to work well through the first two centuries of the dynasty, and the integrity of public officials remained high. Moved by idealism, nationalism was strong, and the country's welfare primary. The emphasis placed on scholarship and the arts fostered output of national histories, scientific treatises, technology, medicine, increased use of printing to disseminate information, and in­terest in calligraphy, painting, and porcelain. One of Korea's proudest achievements, the in­digenous han'giJl script, was promulgated in 1446 by King Sejong.

Eventually, the yangban class became too influential for the king to tolerate. Between 1498 and 1545 there were four great literati purges. In response, many scholars went to the country to study and open sowon (private academies), while others retumed to their ancestral homes to farm. The 1500s also saw a series of peasant uprisings and the emergence of bandits in re­sponse to excessive tax burdens, the land grab­bing of yangban, and the deteriorating social condition of the lower classes.

Then, after some two centuries of Japanese raids on the Korean coast, a formal treaty was signed in 1443 that organized trade and opened three ports in the southeast corner of the peninsula. Korean trade was supervised by government agents; the Lord of Tsushima handled trade for Japan. Trade items from Korea were largely agricultural, handicraft, artis­tic, and religious; from Japan came raw mate­rials and silver.

The Imlin War

The Imjin War (1592-98), also known as the Hideyoshi Invasions, was one of the most dis­astrous periods of Korean history. Shortly after consolidating control of Japan, the great general Toyotomi Hideyoshi decided to invade China in an attempt to become the ruler of all Asia. The easiest route to China cut through the Ko­rean Peninsula. He asked the Korean king for help, or for unobstructed passage. As Korea had strong diplomatic relations with the Ming Dynasty, the king refused. To teach Korea a lesson, Japanese troops attacked Korea in April 1592 with their full military might. Although there had been voices in the Korean government call­ing for the strengthening of the military, the crown did not take note and Korea was virtually defenseless when Japan let loose its battle­hardened troops. Japanese troops pushed up to the capital in two weeks, forcing King Sonjo to flee. A few weeks later the Japanese were in P'yongyang. Except in a few fortified southern towns, Korean opposition consisted largely of hastily organized guerrilla troops led by local yangban. Against Japanese rifles (copies of Portuguese models, never before seen by Ko­reans), they resisted bravely with arrows, can­nons, and explosives, but still lost nearly every encounter. Finally, following the arrival of a large Ming force to assist the Koreans, the Japanese slowly retreated to the south coast. Peace ne­gotiations were held between the Chinese and Japanese, with no agreement; skirmishes con­tinued until 1596. In 1597 there was a second great invasion, which the combined Korean and Chinese armies confined to the two southern provinces. Still, there was great loss of Korean life and property.

Korea's saving grace was its navy. As in 1592, 1597-98 saw many great naval victories for the Koreans. The kobukson was introduced and put to good use. It was a small, extremely maneuverable wooden warship roughly the shape of a turtle. Cannons were mounted on all sides, and spiked metal plates covered its humped top to discourage boarding.Moved by sail or oar, these ships could dart around and harass the larger and 5 more ponderous Japanese boats. Led  by Admiral Yi Sun-shin, the Korean navy crippled Japanese supply lines to the peninsula, sinking supply ships and troop carriers by the dozen. In 1598 Hideyoshi died an.d the Japa­nese decided to end the war and return home. During the last major sea battle in Nov. 1598, Admiral Yi was killed.

Throughout this conflict, the Japanese had raped, pillaged, and plundered. Crops were razed, buildings burned, movable treasures taken, and other objects destroyed. Korea lost a great portion of its most valuable cultural prop­erties. The government was drastically weak­ened, the economy was in shambles, and famine resulted. Ming China also suffered loss and economic decline, which contributed to its downfall. Unfortunately for Korea, its troops also looted the country after the war on their return to China. Japan however, fared far better. Although it did not reach its goal of penetrating China, it boosted its economy and helped solidify the country under Hideyoshi's successor, Toku­gawa leyasu. In retreat, the Japanese took many prisoners, including scholars, artisans, and craftsmen, and many religious and art objects and books. Because of what these reluctant emigres were able to teach the Japanese, the religious, cultural, and artistic currents of Japan were greatly enhanced during the following cen­turies. From the early 1600s, trade and occa­sional diplomatic exchanges were resumed and continued until the 1800s.

Like fresh air invading a stuffy room, a vi­brant alternative to the narrow-minded tradi­tionalism of scholars and bureaucrats arose. This was Silhak ("practical learning," or prag­matism), which proposed practical solutions to problems and acceptance of doctrines other than Confucianism. It was a challenge to the established order. New ideas included the eq­uitable redistribution of land, loosening the rigid class system, government service by merit rather than class, aid for the poor, equal oppor­tunity in education, and the introduction of S6hak ("Western learning") to help solve some of Ko­rea's problems. Concurrently, new forms of lit­erature were developed, and interest in Korean scholarship surged. Genre paintings of everyday scenes became numerous, and crafts were so widely produced that even the common man might have some. Scientific and technological in­struments were created, and agriculture was improved. However, few substantive reforms were instituted in government, law, or social re­lationships.

Outside Contacts

Western ideas, in the guise of Catholicism, first influenced Korea in the late 1700s, when en­voys to Beijing brought books back from the Middle Kingdom. Some scholars became inter­ested in these new ideas, but the government, fearing challenges to the established ethical and philosophical order, discouraged contact with this 'Western learning." A Chinese priest en­tered Korea in 1784 and a French priest fol­lowed in 1836 to "spread the word" and minister to the growing community of believers. Others came during the following decades, though fre­quent persecutions of Christians martyred thou­sands.

Korea's exposure to the West did not hap­pen only through these religious contacts. There is evidence of foreign contact during the United Silla period, probably via overland trade routes from the Middle East. A Portuguese trader on his way from Lisbon to Japan reportedly landed on the coast of Korea in 1577 during a storm. A few years later, the Portuguese priest Gregory de Cespedes came to Korea with Japanese troops during the first winter of the Imjin War. In 1627, a lone Dutchman named Weltevree was shipwrecked on the southeast coast and taken into service by the Korean court because of his knowledge of warfare and the production of ar­maments. Twenty-six years later, 36 Dutch sailors washed ashore on Cheju-do. After being held captive for 13 years, survivors escaped to

Japan. The ship's secretary, Hendrik Hamel, later wrote the first Western book about Korea. From 1832 merchant ships and warships oc­casionally entered Korean waters, probed for trade relations, or simply scouted the coast. But it wasn't until 1866 that there were any serious contacts with the West. Russia requested diplo­matic relations, and an independent German entrepreneur asked for permission to trade with the country; both were denied. Later that year, an American gunboat sailed up the Taedong River to the doorstep of P'yongyang to demand trade relations. Although this approach had suc­ceeded in opening the door to Japan a few years earlier, the ship ran aground on a sandbar in the middle of the river and the Koreans burned it, killing all on board. In response to the execu­tion of French missionaries in a separate incident in 1866, the French navy invaded and held Kanghwa-do for a few weeks in 1869. Denied permission to address the king about their griev­ances, they left unsatisfied. Two years later the Americans showed up on Kanghwa-do, once again trying to force open the country for trade. After limited military skirmishes, they retreated. The Japanese came in 1875 to test the Koreans' defenses, and engaged in minor military en­counters on Kanghwa-do. Returning the next year in force, they compelled Korea to sign the unequal Kanghwa Treaty, its first modern trade agreement with a foreign nation, opening the ports of Inch'on, Pusan, and Wonsan.

To counter Japanese influence, China con­vinced Korea to establish relations with Western countries. In 1882, Korea signed its first diplo­matic treaty, with the United States. During the next four years, similar treaties were reached with Great Britain, Germany, France, Italy, and Russia, and economic relations established with other Western nations. Korea's doors were opened, and during the following two decades diplomats, businessmen, and missionaries fil­tered into this previously unknown country.

Waning of the Dynasty

Aside from perceived threats from the West, Korea also faced serious internal problems dur­ing the last century of the Choson Dynasty. The 1800s saw increasing corruption and inefficien­cy in government. The kings were weaklings and policies were made by powerful families or factions of high-ranking individuals at court. Cul­tural and artistic expression flourished, but the country was stunted politically and economical­ly, poorly developed militarily, and naive in in­ternational relations. Voices of dissent were re­pressed and because of yangban oppression of the lower classes, dissatisfaction continued to ferment and sometimes boiled over. An effort, termed the Kabo Revolution, by upper-class pro-Japanese activists in 1884 to bring about drastic changes in government and institute re­forms (similar to those of the Meiji Restoration in Japan a few years earlier) also failed.

In the 1860s, the indigenous religion, Tong­hak("Eastern learning"), had been formulated. Combining elements from Buddhism, Confu­cianism, shamanism, and other sources, it es­poused the equality and dignity of all peoples, equal opportunity, national self-sufficiency, and independence from foreign influence. Tonghak followers in 1894 protested against social con­ditions and the growing dominance of Japa­nese merchants in the Korean market. They engaged in violent clashes with the Korean army, prompting both China and Japan to send in troops to help suppress the demonstrations. As China and Japan were at this time vying for influence over the Korean Peninsula, the T ong­hak Rebellion brought relations between the two giants to a head and helped spark the Sino­Japanese War (1894-95). Partially fought on Korean soil, this was the first modern war en­gaged in by foreign powers on the peninsula. Japan won, dramatically ending Chinese influ­ence there. Japan subsequently demanded that Korea make sweeping changes in its poli­cies to benefit Japanese interests. Because of its loss in the war, China ceded Taiwan and the Liaotung Peninsula to Japan and was forced to recognize Korea as a fully independent na­tion, ending its centuries-long domination of the peninsula. After the murder of Queen Min in 1895, King Kojong and his heir fled to the Russ­ian legation. Emerging about one year later, the king proclaimed himself emperor. The coun­try's name was changed to Taehan Cheguk, or "Great Han Empire," symbolically equaliz­ing the status of Korea, China, and Japan. It was an empty honor, however, as KOjong was nearly powerless in the face of foreign imposi­tion; Korea found herself the pawn of foreign governments which had little concern for the people of the peninsula.

Japan, China, and Russia had vied for influence over Korea from the late 18oos. With China out of the way, and the policies of Korea largely in her favor, all Japan had to do was eliminate Russia. Russia had economic interests in Korea and Manchuria that it hoped to exploit. It also had influence at the Korean court in the last years of the 1890s. When Japan and the Western pow­ers sent troops into China in 1900 to subdue the Boxer Rebellion, Russia moved troops into Manchuria. Early in the 1900s, Russia completed the Trans-Siberian railway, which enabled easy movement of men and supplies to the Far East. Japan sawall of this as too provocative and, using Korea as a conduit to Manchuria, attacked the Russians. Fought partially within Korean territory and par­tially on Japanese-occupied Chinese soil, the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) was the first major conflict between East and West. To the surprise of many in the West, Japan handily de­feated the Russians and forced Western na­tions to look upon it as a world power.

Infrastructure started during the late ChosCn Dynasty (1880-1905) by Western nations and Japan:

1) First rail lines built: connect Pusan to Seoul and Oiju; also

Seoul to Inch'on.

2) First telegraph lines laid: connect Pusan to Inch'on and Oiju. 3) King Kojong makes the country's first telephone call.

4) First electricity and public water service installed in Seoul.

5) First hospital constructed, later to become Severance Hospital. 6) First Western-style schools: built by missionaries for both

males and females of all social classes.

7) First hotel built in Seoul: Chosun Hotel.